Six Sigma Enterprise Architecture

Introduction Today, more than ever before, enterprises are increasingly being faced with unparalleled competitive and regulatory demands, along with elevated levels of business uncertainty as they wade through the upsetting waters of contemporary global economy.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Six Sigma Enterprise Architecture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More On yet another front, the convergence of technology witnessed in the 21st century has made many enterprises increasingly concerned with how to productively transition to an enterprise exploiting information technology to its fullest strategic potential (Morganwalp Sage, 2003). In the light of these concerns, it is obvious that executives must embrace a paradigm shift from the traditional enterprise management approaches to more market-oriented approaches, which underlines the need to balance capabilities, manage risks, improve processes and systems, a nd engage in agile decision-making with a view to achieve the desired business end-states (Mykityshyn Rouse, 2007). As has been witnessed in the company, the organization’s Enterprise Architecture (EA) plays a critical role in this transition, particularly in integrating key processes and systems to enable the organization to easily evolve and productively adapt to recurrent technology and business shifts as they occur in the market place (Morganwalp Sage, 2003). To retain competitiveness amid the rapidly changing technology and business discourses, therefore, it is fundamental for managers to sample and integrate other management approaches into the EA practice. Consequently, it is the purpose of this white paper to explicitly detail how one such management approach, known as the Six Sigma approach, can be introduced into the organization’s EA practice with a view to maintain productivity and sustain competitiveness Brief Overview of the Six Sigma Approach Over the last couple of decades, the discourse on the need for, and capacity to deliver, continuous improvement of organizational processes and systems has slowly but steadily gained momentum within the business field.Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As reported by van Iwaarden et al (2008), this organizational outlook necessitated Motorola to develop the â€Å"†¦concept of Six Sigma in the mid-1980s to improve the performance of key processes, productivity and quality and at the same time reduce costs† (p. 6739). Mainstream business commentators are of the opinion that the Six Sigma approach was a by-product of internal as well as external drivers of change; not only was Motorola under pressure to undertake continuous improvement in the development of intricate devices involving a multitude of parts with a high prospect of deficiencies in the end product (internal d river), but its customers were demanding that the company improve quality in their final product offerings (external driver). Sanders (2010) notes that although the Six Sigma approach is defined in multi-faceted dimensions, it is primarily a business philosophy that lays much focus on continuous improvement by, among other things, addressing customer needs and expectations, evaluating business processes and systems, and establishing effective measurement techniques to curtail process variation. This approach differs from preceding productivity improvement methodologies in that it accentuates the need to focus on quality as defined through the prism of the customer, reduced defects and variations in the end product, and thorough statistical techniques. The main objective of Six Sigma, according to van Iwaarden et al (2008), is value creation through actively undertaking quality improvement processes. Consequently, the process by which this important facet is achieved, it seems, would involve training of human resources in tools and methods, as well as in problem solving Available literature (e.g., Lee Choi, 2006; Sanders, 2010; Johnson, 2006; Hwang, 2006) demonstrates that â€Å"DMAIC (define, measure, analyze, improve, control)† is not only the most frequently used application of the Six Sigma approach, but also one of the most practical initiatives through which enterprises are able to take active steps towards streamlining their business initiatives and reducing unnecessary waste. Indeed, as postulated by Sanders (2010), â€Å"†¦this five-step method structures an approach for clearly identifying the desired level of improvement, measuring current performance, identifying the root cause of deviations from the ideal state, eliminating the root causes, and implementing control systems to maintain improvements† (p. 42).Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Six Sigma Enterprise Architecture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this perspective, the Six Sigma methodology employs a dominant quality and statistics toolset to enhance process improvement and performance, relative to customer needs and expectations, to a level of 99.99997 percent (Saunders, 2010). It is important to note that the well documented bottom-line benefits attained by Motorola upon implementing the Six Sigma paradigm to guide the company’s business processes led to the adoption of the approach by other blue-chip companies such as Honeywell (former AlliedSignal), 3M, Sony, ABB and General Electric (Iwaarden at al, 2008). Today, interest in the adoption of the Six Sigma approach is at an all-time high as concerns on process improvement initiatives for organizations reach an instantiation stage. Roles of Six Sigma Approach within the Scope of the Enterprise Architecture Practice Despite increasing awareness of the Enterprise Architecture (EA) in the business arena, and in sp ite of its elevated importance, scholars and practitioners are yet to develop a standard definition of the concept (Ka-Yin et al, 2009). According to extant research in organizational development (OD) and strategy implementation, however, the genesis of the acknowledgment of the role of an Enterprise Architecture (EA) as a major contributor to organizational success and competitiveness can be traced back to the seminal works of J.A. Zachman, particularly his landmark publication in 1987 titled ‘A framework for information system’s architecture.’ Upon further synthesis of this new concept, Zachman, quoted in Mathee et al (2006), defined EA as â€Å"†¦descriptive representations (i.e. models) that are relevant for describing an enterprise such that it can be produced to management’s requirements (quality) and maintained over the period of its useful life (change)† (p. 11). Zachman was categorical that the framework for EA was not ‘the answe r’ to the challenges facing the organization; on the contrary, it is to be used as a tool for thinking through the challenges, implying that if the EA practice is applied with understanding, it would be of immense importance to technical and non-technical management equally in dealing with the complications and dynamics of the information age enterprise (Mathee et al, 2006).Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Spewak (1992), quoted in Mathee et al (2006), took the perspective of employing EA to, among other things, â€Å"†¦present a conceptual map of an organization from many perspectives – from business, applications, information and technological points of view† (p. 12). Van der Klashorst (2001), also quoted in Mathee et al (2006), postulated that EA â€Å"†¦typically consists of current and future state models of key components, namely enterprise business architecture, enterprise information architecture, enterprise application architecture, and enterprise-wide technical architecture† (p. 12). Of course there exists many other definitions of EA, but the stated definitions will inarguably assist in determining the scope of EA practice and, by extension, assist in analyzing the role of Six Sigma approach within such a scope. From the above definitions, it can be deduced that every organization – public or public – has an EA, whether it is cons ciously aware of it or not. From the definitions, it also becomes obvious that EA is expansive in scope, though it was initially concerned with information and communication systems and processes. Currently, the EA framework extends to cover business, information and communication, application, and the technology entities within an organization (Mathee et al, 2006). Although organizations are increasingly using the EA framework as a means to enhance the efficiency, effectiveness, and agility of the enterprise, particularly in the entities discussed above, it has come to the attention of scholars and practitioners that many EA programs to date remain detached from the business entity of the framework, and are indeed viewed primarily as technical endeavours (Burton, 2011). This being the case, it is suggested that the Six Sigma approach, through constant evaluation of business process and systems, can function to move EA beyond the scope of information technology (IT) and, in conjunct ion with the basic tenets of EA, assist the enterprise to unify the planning, optimization, and designing of its most fundamental business initiatives with the technology environment that enable them. Many organizational-wide EA programs are led by enterprise architects, who must possess unique capabilities and competencies for the programs to be a success. The Six Sigma approach, owing to its overemphasis on measuring current performance and discovering the root cause of variations from the ideal state (Johnson, 2006), can be used by enterprise consultants to develop a community of experts who maps for the organization, not only what can or cannot work to achieve optimal performance among and across the entities, but also what can be effectively and efficiently applied to unique and novel situations (Lee Choi, 2006). Consequently, the enterprise architects, through Six Sigma-oriented training, must possess the human competencies to align strategic and operational views of business , drive the technology vision, transform and automate operations, facilitate and govern organizational change, mitigate risk and, lastly, integrate people, processes, and technology (CAEP, 2010). In line with the above, it is a well known fact that the Six Sigma approach, through its DMAIC methodology, concerns itself with implementing lean organization-wide control systems charged with the responsibility of reducing waste and maintaining improvements (Hwang, 2006). This role can be critical in assisting the EA practice, in its broader context, to design the System of System (SOS) hierarchical levels and in deciding what is best for the enterprise-wide SOS rather that having to rely on disjointed, localized considerations that may not only be time consuming, but also resource depleting (Morganwalp Sage, 2003). This implies that the Six Sigma approach have a central role in selecting and streamlining the business processes that the EA practice may wish to synchronize for optimal bus iness results and competitiveness. Lastly, it should be remembered that the EA practice originally dealt with the implementation of enterprise-wide technology projects. However, the knowledge that a multitude of organizations utilize technology ineptly and/or inefficiently and therefore end up producing too many defective products is in the public domain (Hwang, 2006). In such a such a scenario, the Six Sigma approach can be incorporated into the EA practice with a view to introduce its powerful toolset that will not only enhance levels of accuracy and quality, but will also introduce aspects of job management, cost reduction, and speed increment to make the end product much more efficient and effective (Johnson, 2006). Such a disposition will go a long way to enhance and sustain customer satisfaction levels, implying more profits for the enterprise. Relationship between the Six Sigma Approach Enterprise Architecture Practice Two apparently independent paradigms that are capturing the attention of scholars and practitioners in recent years are Six Sigma and the Enterprise Architecture. Both approaches, according to Ravischandran (2006), are largely considered to be powerful management disciplines, but EA has a much broader scope than the Six Sigma approach. In the light of this discussion, therefore, it can be deduced that both EA and Six Sigma are business-improvement approaches with many overlaps, but also with some dissimilarities (Nash et al, 2006). Although it is outside the scope of this paper to engage in comparative analysis of the two approaches, it is worthwhile to note that both are guided by different principles but aim to accomplish similar outcomes in terms of contributing to organizational success and competitiveness. To establish relationships, it can be argued that the EA practice is fundamental when considering the design and development of complex systems within organizations (Long, 2009), but it is the Six Sigma approach that provides the methodology through which such complex business and technology system can be maintained efficiently and effectively within organizations (Hwang, 2006). While the EA practice strives to achieve alignment of components under common standards that aids change management and guarantee integrated and effective operation, it is the task of the Six Sigma approach to provide the common standards that are used to eliminate defects and avoid wastage (Moosa Sajid, 2010). Both approaches, according to Lee Choi (2006), aim to develop more customer-focussed paradigms that simplify processes and unify efforts across the various hierarchies of the organization, not mentioning that both approaches have been predominantly used to drive technology enablement. Consequently, these two approaches can be said to be two sides of the same side, only that one side – the EA practice – is larger in scope than the other side, which represents the Six Sigma approach. Introducing Six Sigma into EA Practice: Management Technical Activities Involved To successfully introduce the Six Sigma methodology into the EA practice, a multitude of management and technology activities must not only be present, but must also be harnessed, aligned and directed towards the achievement of effective and efficient systems and processes in the management as well as in the technical fronts (Jochem, 2009). Aligning the activities involved, according to (Long, 2010), is particularly important if both of these approaches are to be used in complimentary terms as tools for management innovation and growth. The management’s activities involved in introducing the Six Sigma approach into the EA practice revolves around aspects of â€Å"Process Innovation†, â€Å"Quality Improvement†, and â€Å"Corporate Competitiveness Improvement† (Lee Choi, 2006). While process innovation implies the development and implementation of a new or appreciably enhanced production or delivery met hodology, quality improvement implies the systematic approach to lessening or eradication of waste, rework, and losses in any business enterprise (Wiklund Wiklund, 2002). Corporate competitiveness improvement, on its part, denotes a management activity that emphasizes the capability of an enterprise to offer end-products or services that meet the needs, demands, and expectations of customers (Morganwalp Sage, 2003). When put under careful analysis, it is revealed that the discussed management activities, in large part determine the direction of Six Sigma initiatives at the organizational level. The technology activities involved in introducing the Six Sigma Approach into the EA practice revolves around issues of information system, communication channels, policy issues, and education and training (Wiklund Wiklund, 2002). For instance, when the information system is improved under the Six Sigma initiative, the ability to respond to the needs, demands, and expectations of customers is also improved. Equally, it is a well known fact that education and training through the various Six Sigma accreditations, such as the green belt accreditation (training for two weeks) and the black belt accreditation (training for two years), goes a long way to not only influence other processes in the organization, but also the personnel involved are up to the task, particularly in ensuring the availability of critical data for analysis as well as in keeping time for sustainable application of the Six Sigma activity (Sanders 2010). Some consequences may present when attempting to introduce the Six Sigma approach into the EA practice. However, these consequences cannot possibly outmanoeuvre the sublime benefits of engaging in this alignment. Upon introducing the Six Sigma approach, it is expected that employees and management must under extensive training to learn the new language of Six Sigma (Sanders, 2010). Such training, if not well directed and implemented, may drain scarce organizational resources. Second, it is known Six Sigma is about streamlining processes aimed at achieving business improvement. In the process of such streamlining, some management levels may become redundant, while some employees may have to be dismissed from service. Such a situation, if not well controlled and guided, may lead to resistance from management and loss of motivation from employees (Long, 2009). Governance and leadership challenges may also present as the organization takes a new turn towards enacting a leaner system and leaner structure of authority and command (Jochem, 2009). Adequate preparation and professionalism in implementing such an initiative therefore becomes a prerogative rather than an exception. Conclusion Through a critical evaluation of existing literature, this paper has demonstrated the many benefits that the company stands to gain in introducing the Six Sigma approach into the EA practice. The Six Sigma approach will greatly assist the EA practice to understand business processes, actively eliminate the root causes of problems or defects instead of waiting for them to happen before action is taken, improve business processes and systems, and identify tailor-made requirements for organization-wide technology adoption (van Iwaarden et al, 2008). It has been demonstrated that at present, the EA framework extends to cover business, information and communication, application, and the technology entities within an organization (Mathee et al, 2006). The company will therefore benefit immensely by introducing this business-improvement approach into yet another broad-based business and technology improvement program that has come to be known as Enterprise Architecture Reference List Burton, T.T. (2011). Improve HOW YOU improve. Industrial Engineer, 43(8), 48-53. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier Database. Centre for the Advancement of the Enterprise Architecture Profession. (2010). Enterprise Architecture: A Professional Practice Gui de. Web. Hwang, Y.D. (2006). The practices of integrating manufacturing execution systems and Six Sigma methodology. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 31(1/2), 145-154. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Jochem, R. (2009). Quality governance. Total Quality Management Business Excellence, 20(7), 777-785. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Johnson, A. (2006). Lessons learned from Six Sigma in RD. Research Technology Management, 49(2), 15-19. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier Database. Ka-Yin, C., Songhai, L., Wai-Hung, I. (2009). Enhancing enterprise information integration using Six Sigma. Total Quality Management Business Excellence, 20(5), 537-546. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Lee, K.C., Choi, B. (2006). Six Sigma management activities and their influence on corporate competitiveness. Total Quality Management Business Excellence, 17(7), 893-911. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Long, A.M. (2009). Enterprise Architecture: Origins, tools, and insights. Air force Journal of Logistics, 33(2), 116-125. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Mathee, M.C., Tobin, P.K.J., Van Der Merwe, P. (2007). The status quo of enterprise architecture implementation in South African financial services companies. South African Journal of Business Management, 38(1), 11-23. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier Database. Moosa, K., Sajid, A. (2010). Critical analysis of Six Sigma implementation. Total Quality Management Business Excellence, 21(7), 745-759. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Morganwalp, J., Sage, A.P. (2003). A system of systems focused enterprise architecture framework and an associated architecture development process. Information Knowledge Systems Management, 3(2-4), 87-105. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Mykityshyn, M.G., Rouse, W.B. (2007). Supporting strategic enterprise processes: An Analysis of various architectural framewo rks. Information Knowledge Systems Management, 6(1/2), 145-175. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Nash, M., Poling, S.R., Ward, S. (2006). Six Sigma speed. Industrial Engineer, 38(11), 40-44. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier Database. Ravischandran, J. (2006). Six-sigma milestone: An overall sigma level of an organization. Total Quality Management Business Excellence, 17(8), 973-980. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Sanders, J.H. (2010). Six Sigma myths busted begin. Industrial Engineer, 42(3), 41-46. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Van Iwaarden, J., van der Wiele, T., Dale, B., Williams, R., Bertsch, B. (2008). The Six Sigma improvement approach: A transitional comparison. International Journal of Production Research, 46(23), 6739-6758. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Wiklund, H., Wiklund, P.S. (2002). Widening the Six Sigma concept: An approach to improve organizational learning. Total Quality Management, 13(2), 233-239. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. This assessment on Six Sigma Enterprise Architecture was written and submitted by user Maxx Bates to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Knowledge in Muhammad Yanus essays

Knowledge in Muhammad Yanus essays In Muhammad Yunus words, eradication of poverty starts when people are able to control their own fates. It is not by creating jobs that we will save the poor, but rather by providing them with the opportunity to realize their potential. I strongly agree with Muhammad Yunus statements, states, especially developing states, must provide their citizens with employment opportunities if they ever want their citizens to realize their potential and become productive individuals. Like, Muhammad pointed-out, realization of potential can lead to many great things, for both the country and the individual. I believe, like Muhammad, the number one reason why there is an overwhelming population that live in poverty, is because those individuals have been denied the opportunities to see what they are capable of. I think Muhammads establishment of the Grameen Bank is an absolutely brilliant idea. In my mind one of the best solutions to help people in the global south make a difference in their lives, have productive lives, and have a fighting chance to make a decent life for themselves. Muhammad is ingenious in the way he brings the very fundamentals of banking to give loans to poverty stricken villagers who wouldnt ordinarily be able to open up banking loans. Muhammads bank works on so many different levels, particularly that fact that it requires a small coalition of people to rely on each other to repay the loan that they are initially given. Peer pressure is indeed a powerful force, and it no doubt makes each individual strive to be productive with the money they are given. ...

The Evolution of the Civil Society Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Evolution of the Civil Society - Term Paper Example Locke and Hobbes diverge on the notion of sovereignty. Locke argues that civil society precedes the state. For him, it is a society that provides the state its essential source of legitimacy. He contends that when the rulers fail to encourage interests, independence, and equality of individual humans, the social contract is breached and it is the responsibility of the members of society to oust that ruler. This is based on Locke’s assertion that the state of nature is based on equality and if people are equal, then the civil society is the state. The state is no greater than the society that made it: â€Å"A state also of equality, wherein all the power and jurisdiction is reciprocal, no one having more than another† and that â€Å"the lord and master of them all should, by any manifest declaration of his will, set one above another, and confer on him, by an evident and clear appointment, an undoubted right to dominion and sovereignty†. Hobbes believes the contra ry because it is the state that creates a civil society. Civil society is the product of civil society’s enforcement of the social contract, as he expresses in the Leviathan: â€Å"This is more than Consent or Concord; it is a real Unity of them all, in one and the same Person, made by Covenant of every man with every man† (Hobbes). For Hobbes, the people authorized the government to have the authority in directing civil society. I believe that Locke and Hobbes make good points. I agree with Locke that sovereignty is not only about the autonomy of the state.

Homelessness and the Failure of the Welfare System Essay

Homelessness and the Failure of the Welfare System - Essay Example In his time on the streets, he speaks of Billy Jack, a longtime homeless person who has recently gotten out of jail after five years. For him, being homeless is a matter of pride and a sense of place. He panhandles, he drinks wine, and he waits every morning for the Sally Ann truck to come by with breakfast and clothing. He is settled in his routine. The Parkdale recreation centre in Toronto is a shelter for the homeless, but, according to Stackhouse, public opinion does not consider these people homeless. Some have mental problems; some, such as Jim, have at least a part-time job. Jim works to supplement his disability income and believes that working is a way to be healthier. What constitutes a homeless person Is it simply a matter of not have a mailing address or is it based on income Stackhouse says: When I had set out a week earlier to live homeless, I did not expect to be eating pancakes and sausage for breakfast and pastries before bed, or to earn $20 an hour simply by sitting on the ground with a cardboard sign in front of me (233). On the other side of the coin, Stackhouse goes on to mention his surprise at how much crack passes through the shelters considered representative of public goodwill. He also makes note of the fact that as he moves from one shelter to another, he is apt to see the same people, who are also moving. Some shelters are better than others, for instance in an affluent area of Toronto, Stackhouse talks with an overnight guest, who apologizes for being there and says he knows he shouldn't be. He has a truck, hauls scrap metal to dumps, and makes about $600 to $700 a week. The problems, Stackhouse has discovered, are more psychological than physical and often not related to simply shelter for the homeless. To be homeless, according to Stackhouse, is to be without a stable environment. He quotes one homeless man in this affluent shelter who says: "This is a real traditional neighborhood (comparing it with his transient existence). I bet these people never have to go anywhere" (232). Refutation of Opposing Argument It is said by some that the homeless do not have the resources, opportunities and skills they need to go back to the main society. Jack Layton, president of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities, offers a more academic view of homelessness in his rebuttal of Stackhouse's article. But instead of looking at the specific details of Stackhouse's experience, Layton makes this a personal vendetta, ignoring the underlying implications in the reporter's series. The situations referred to by Layton are that, after one week outdoors, Stackhouse claims, according to Layton, that public resources are used by crack dealers, that beggars earn professional wages and that there is "more free food than the homeless can eat" (Layton, 235). Although Layton implies that he is quoting from the article, the phrase about free food is not even in it, which immediately weakens his argument. Layton does admit that emergency shelters alone are not the answer, but his only reference to the personal aspects of the homeless is their need for more respect. He seems to consider money and

Transnational Organized Crime

Transnational Organized Crime 1) Describe the role and function of the Transnational Organized Crime Convention and the Convention’s relationship to its Protocols. The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime (also known as the ‘Palermo Convention’) has attached to it the Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air 2000, the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, and the Protocol Against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition. The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime was adopted by General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15 November 2000 and is â€Å"the main instrument in the fight against transnational organized crime†. It entered into force on 29 September 2003. States that ratify the instrument commit to taking a series of measures against transnational organized crime, including the creation of domestic criminal offences; the adoption of new and sweeping frameworks for extradition, mutual legal assistance and law enforcement cooperation; and the promotion of training and technical assistance for building or upgrading the necessary capacity of national authorities. The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime and its Protocols are not human rights instruments in themselves, but have instead been described as providing â€Å"treaty framework to help states unite to combat transnational organised crime†. One commentator views the Convention and its Protocols as a framework of guidance which needs â€Å"filling in†, particularly in the areas of the exchange of information, the registration of biodata and the building of common entrance policies. The Protocols are not binding upon signatories of the Convention itself unless the signatory also becomes a party to the Protocol. The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime states itself that its purpose is â€Å"to promote cooperation to prevent and combat transnational organized crime more effectively†. Article 3 provides that the Convention applies to a range of offences that the Convention criminalizes when they are transnational in nature, and then spells out that such an offence is transnational in nature if: (a) It is committed in more than one State; (b) It is committed in one State but a substantial part of its preparation, planning, direction or control takes place in another State; (c) It is committed in one State but involves an organised criminal group that engages in criminal activities in more than one State; or (d) It is committed in one State but has substantial effects in another State. The Protocols then add to the list of crimes contained in the Convention. As Kofi Annan states in the foreword to the Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, â€Å"Criminal groups have wasted no time in embracing today’s globalized economy and the sophisticated technology that goes with it. But our efforts to combat them have remained up to now very fragmented and our weapons almost obsolete. The Convention gives us a new tool to address the scourge of crime as a global problem. With enhanced international cooperation, we can have a real impact on the ability of international criminals to operate successfully and can help citizens everywhere in their often bitter struggle for safety and dignity in their homes and communities.† 2) What do we mean by the term ‘securitisation’ of transnational crime? Do you think policies that ‘securitise’ TNC are useful? In basic terms, the securitisation of transnational crime means the movement of legislative bodies from viewing crime in a cultural, social, economic and/or legal context to viewing transnational crime as a matter of national security. The Copenhagen School defines the concept of securitization: â€Å"Securitization refers to the process of presenting an issue in security terms, in other words as an existential threat†. Transnational crime may be presented as an existential threat to the security of nations through the discourse that political leaders utilise, but also through others. Transnational crime has been referred to as a security issue in the academic literature. McFarlane and McLennan claimed in 1996: â€Å"Transnational crime is now emerging as a serious threat in its own right to national and international security and stability†. In modern times, forms of transnational crime in the Asia Pacific have been securitized that is, represented by policy elites and security actors as crucial or existential threats to national and regional security. At the first summit of ASEAN heads of state and government held in Bali in 1976 President Suharto declared: â€Å"Our concept of security is inward looking, namely, to establish an orderly, peaceful and stable condition within each territory, free from any subversive elements and infiltration, wherever their origins may be†. Galeotti has recently indicated that â€Å"the struggle against organized and transnational crime will be the defining security concern of the twenty-first century†. As Emmers states â€Å"transnational crime poses a threat to states, national economies and civil societies.† He provides the example of non-state actors using terrorism to promote their political causes. In his opinion the groups are able to gain strength from their ability to forge links across national boundaries and in turn are able to threaten national sovereignty and the integrity of independent states with the result that they can effectively threaten the survival of the governments of those states. However, it is not just terrorism which may be ‘securitized’, other forms of transnational crime affect states and their societies. As Emmers again notes, â€Å"drug trafficking and money laundering reduce a government’s capacity to govern, weaken the credibility of financial institutions and undermine social order†. Nevertheless, Emmers has also expressed the opinion that the problem of transnational crime could be dealt with more effectively if it was approached primarily as a criminal matter rather than as a security issue. He notes that the concept of securitization of transnational crime can work better in some nations than others, depending on the commitment shown by those nations to tackle transnational crime in a security driven way. Comparing the US and the ASEAN states he says that in the US the securitization rather than the criminalization of terrorism has allowed the US to use more traditional security responses against al-Qaeda, with the obvious rhetoric being â€Å"War on terror†. It may therefore be argued that where a state is prepared to tackle transnational crime in traditional, often military, ways, policies that securitize transnational crime are indeed useful. However, it has been argued by Emmers that where states are not prepared or are unable to tackle transnational crime in a traditional security based way, criminalization rather than securitization, should take precedence. As Emmers states: â€Å"In the context of Southeast Asia, ASEAN may be advised to further rely on the criminalization of transnational crime, as it does not dispose over the collective will, joint political instruments and military capabilities to match its rhetorical claims about security†. He also argues that transnational crime being seen in a criminal context rather than a security one could lead to better results. In his 2002 paper he suggests that criminal activity cannot be solved by resorting to the traditional security means, such as army activation and concludes: â€Å"The US war on drugs in Columbia and its failure to reduce the supply of narcotics in America is testimony to that reality.† 3) Briefly describe the role of globalisation in modern TNC. In order to describe the role of globalisation in modern transnational crime, it is useful to consider what ‘globalization’ really means. As Gros states, â€Å"globalization does not mean the same thing to all people† and therefore there is â€Å"confusion around what it is and what it does†. Gros defines globalization as â€Å"the deregulation of national economies and financial markets, on the one hand, and their international integration under the aegis of free-market ideology on the other†. In policy terms, globalization often entails the deregulation of capital flows, eviction of the state from areas that concern production and the privatization of former state-owned enterprises, reduction in the size of government, trade liberalization and the creation of large trading blocs. Wright argues that the globalization of business serves to foster organized crime. He states that â€Å"In the case of organized crime (and arguably in the case of international business ethics) we should not be surprised at the failure of the invisible hand of the market to control malpractice.† Furthermore, he states that it is â€Å"for this reason, at least part of the solution to the problem of organized crime is not connected to law enforcement at all It is connected to the further development of the free associations of civil society which can influence government policy and eventually relegate organized crime to the status of a fringe activity.† The impact of globalization on transnational crime can be seen by looking at examples from previously communist and less capitalist regimes. As Sanz and Silverman explain, in the past 30 years or so Communist countries throughout Asia and the Pacific rim have moved toward a more capitalist economic system. These countries’ business communities have welcomed capitalism because it provides more entrepreneurs to achieve greater independence and a richer standard of living. This economic shift in turn receives support from foreign investors. Furthermore, the general population also embrace the capitalist system because it is able to provide new goods and services. As Sanz and Silverman conclude, â€Å"such changes bring us closer to a global economy which will open new markets and expand opportunities for both legitimate and criminal entrepreneurs†. This can be seen in Poland where, â€Å"many new kinds of economic and financial crimes appeared along with the free-market economic system – crimes that had been typical and known for decades in capitalist countries but which had not appeared in Poland for the past 45 years†. The voluntary relaxation or involuntary loss of state control domestically and at international borders coupled with the fact that mechanisms of state governance and incidents of sovereignty have been lost, altered, or sacrificed to produce domestic economic change and promote international trade mean an increase in the ease with which international criminals can operate. As Myers states: â€Å"while this is a gross simplification of the complex issues unique to each state individually, and to regional and global alignments generally, it points to salient factors, which have permitted criminal groups whose activities had domestic, regional or limited international impact to become transnational in scope.† 4) What role does technology play in modern TNC, both from the point of view of assisting TNC and assisting its interdiction? Following on from the impact of globalization on transnational crime is the impact of technological advances. As McFarlane comments, technology enables and increases the capacity of â€Å"transnational organised crime and terrorist groups to exploit advances in electronic banking, encryption, telecommunications, developments in global travel and commerce, and †¦ visa free regimes†. Furthermore, it may be difficult for law enforcement agencies to keep pace with the developing technologies which are capable of being exploited by criminal groups. As McFarlane states, â€Å"transnational organised crime and terrorist groups are usually small and flexible organisations capable of ‘buying the best brains’ to enable them to respond to new technologies more quickly than slow, bureaucratic government agencies†. One particular consideration is the technological advancement of travel (for example speed boats and aeroplanes). It is true that the technological advancement of transportation has had the effect of bringing Southeast Asia closer to Western markets with a quick and, relatively speaking, safe method of moving contraband. As Sanz and Silverman suggest, â€Å"global criminal ventures are now facilitated by the ease of catching a flight and quickly travelling to a country in which one is virtually unknown to the authorities†. As well as making contact between criminal organizations quicker and more accessible, allowing easily planned and accomplished transnational crimes, technological advancements also make the perpetration of certain crimes easier and has even brought new crimes into existence. Again, Sanz and Silverman comment â€Å"technological advancements†¦ make it easy to counterfeit nearly anything from currency to clothing to watches. Technology has also made it relatively easy to obtain a new identity. Medical advances have created a growing demand for human organs, while technological growth has created a market for trade secrets and information about new product research.† Since the break-up of the Soviet Union there has also been, of course, a development of a black market in high tech and nuclear weapons. In terms of transnational criminal finance, technology has had a very important role to play. As Glynn et al. (1997: 12) note, â€Å"the emergence of an electronic financial system markedly enhances opportunities for corruption, the difficulty of controlling it, and the potential damage it can inflict.† Indeed, Gros notes that anyone can move currency around the world, with at least some delay in being caught. He goes on to suggest that transnational criminal organizations are able to recognize opportunities not only in terms of transportation but also with regards the â€Å"fluidity of money markets† allowing for â€Å"movement of illicit profits in and out of countries that are at the epicentre of globalization.† However, technology is not all bad in the fight against transnational crime. For example, the tracing of transnational crime has been made easier by technology in that money can now be tracked across borders through the international banking system. See Dobinson for an interesting case study of how $40 million US dollars was traced across Australia and Hong Kong. Advances in technology also allow law enforcement agencies to update their national systems quicker, alert border control authorities and potentially enable the passing of information between states more efficiently, enabling transnational crime to be prevented, controlled and prosecuted more effectively. 5) What impact have the provisions for Mutual Legal Assistance and the Exchange of Information in the Transnational Organized Crime Convention had on the sharing of intelligence multi-laterally? As one commentator notes, â€Å"obtaining physical custody of fugitives means little absent the evidence needed to convict them at tria†l. MLATs provide assistance at all stages of criminal investigations and prosecutions. Available assistance under MLATs includes bank or other financial records, witness statements and testimony, search and seizure of people and things, and immobilization and forfeiture of the proceeds of criminal activity. As an example of how a MLAT has worked in practice, in 1997 the US made an MLAT request to Canada on behalf of prosecutors who were investigating a murder. Pursuant to the request, the US sought and obtained from the Canadian authorities the murder suspect’s car, copies of airline ticketing records, billing information and other evidence which was then used to secure a conviction. However, in the absence of a specific treaty provision, there is no mechanism whereby parties can be obliged to use formal mutual legal assistance provisions to obtain evidence abroad. In Re Sealed Case the US Court of Appeals rejected the argument that US law enforcement agencies were limited to obtaining evidence in accordance with the provisions set out in a mutual legal assistance treaty signed by the Swiss and US Governments. The appellant refused to comply with a subpoena to appear before a US court to produce documents relating to Swiss companies. Rejecting the argument that compliance with the request would be contrary to Swiss secrecy laws and in breach of international comity, the court held that it could ‘order any party within its jurisdiction to testify or produce documents regardless of a foreign sovereign’s view to the contrary. In Southeast Asia, the picture is complicated, with intelligence sharing and cooperation proving successful but only where the information is not of a nature that will challenge the political rulers of the states. As Emmers recently concluded, there has been success between Sinapore, Malaysia and the Philipines in the context of exchanged information, particularly leading to extradition proceedings. As recently as April 2007, Singapore and Indonesia signed an Extradition Treaty in order that terrorist suspects can be dealt with in the appropriate legal systems. However, despite these examples of bilateral cooperation, Southeast Asian states â€Å"resist sharing sensitive information on domestic matters that could embarrass or challenge the political positions of ruling elites†. Furthermore, difficulties in information sharing and mutual legal assistance may arise where there is a difference between the legal systems of the relevant states. For example, countries which have no mutual legal assistance treaties with Italy have tended to attract Mafia criminals, yet even where agreements have been in place other members of the Mafia have been able to live openly despite the existence of serious criminal charges outstanding against them. Jamieson provides an example of when the jurisdiction of the requested country does not acknowledge the Italian crime of membership of a mafia-type association or, as in the case of the Netherlands and Germany, where crimes of conspiracy do not exist there is a loophole created. The case of the camorra member Michele Zaza exemplified this: Zaza was wanted in Italy since 1984 on charges relating to his purported Mafia association, as well as murder and drug trafficking. His extradition was sought by Italy, however, he was allowed to live openly in France (apart from serving a two year sentence for cigarette smuggling). In fact it was not until 1993 that he was finally re-arrested and extradited to Italy, where he later died in jail. As well as the more ‘pure’ forms of mutual legal assistance provided for in modern times, training has also been an important part in collaboration. Peter Gastrow, a Special Adviser to the Minister of Safety and Security in South Africa identified the police force there as benefiting from international expertise in several areas including: detection and investigative methods; narcotics trafficking; motor vehicle thefts and smuggling; white collar crime, including money laundering and fraud; official corruption; and cross border arms smuggling. Bibliography Bantekas, I. Nash, S. (2007), International Criminal Law, Routledge-Cavendish, pg 401 Brolan, C. (2002), â€Å"An analysis of the human smuggling trade and the Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Air and Sea (2000) from a refugee protection perspective†, IJRL 14, 561 Callahan, T. (1997), â€Å"Transnational crime strikes South Africa†, Crime and Justice International, 13 (2) 9 â€Å"Denying safe haven to international criminals: international crime control strategy†, Trends in Organized Crime, 4 (1), 25 Dobinson, I. (1993), â€Å"Pinning a tail on the dragon: the Chinese and the international heroin trade†, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39 (3), 373 Elliott, L. (2007), â€Å"Transnational environmental crime in the Asia Pacific: an ‘un(der)securitized’ security problem?†, Pacific Review 20 4, 499 Emmers, R. (2002), â€Å"The securitization of transnational crime in ASEAN†, Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies Singapore, no. 39 Emmers, R. (2007), â€Å"Comprehensive security and resilience in Southeast Asia: ASEAN’s approach to terrorism and sea piracy†. Emmers, R. (2003), â€Å"ASEAN and the securitization of transnational crime in Southeast Asia†, Pacific Review 16 3, 419 Galeotti, M. â€Å"Underworld and Upperworld: Transnational Organized Crime and Global Society† in Josselin, D. Wallace, W. (eds) (2001), Non-State Actors in World Politics, London: Palgrave Publishers, pg 216 Glynn et al. (1997: 12) Gros, J.G. (2002), â€Å"Trouble in paradise: crime and collapsed states in the age of globalisation†, British Journal of Criminology, 63 Hansen, L. (2000), â€Å"The Little Mermaid’s silent security dilemma and the absence of gender in the Copenhagen School†, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29(2), 288 Interview with Mr J. Bijen from the IAM (‘Information and Analysis Centre for Smuggling of Human Beings’), The Hague, the Netherlands, 17 July 2000 Jamieson, A. (1995), â€Å"The transnational dimension of Italian organized crime†, Transnational Organized Crime, 1 (2), 151 McFarlane, J. (2005), â€Å"Regional and international cooperation in tackling transnational crime, terrorism and the problems of disrupted states†, JFC 301 McFarlane, J. McLennan, K. (1996), Transnational Crime: The New Security Paradigm, Working Paper no. 294, Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University, pg 2 Myers, W. (1995), â€Å"Orb weavers – the global webs: the structure and activities of transnational ethnic Chinese criminal groups†, Transnational Organized Crime, 1 (4), 1 Plywaczewski, E. (1997), â€Å"Organized crime in Poland†, Transnational Organized Crime, 3 (3), 109 ‘Proposed Solutions to Trafficking’ (2000) 21 Refugee Reports (US Committee For Refugees) Sanz, K. Silverman, I. (1996), â€Å"The evolution and future direction of Southeast Asian criminal organizations†, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 12 (4), 285 Singh, S. (2001), â€Å"Framing ‘South Asia’: Whose imagined region?† United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime available at http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/index.html Wright, A. (1996), â€Å"Organized crime in Hungary: the transition from state to civil society†, Transnational Organized Crime, 3 (1) 68

Australia has a policy of indefinite detention for asylum seekers. Do you feel this is a breach of human rights? Why or why not? Essay

The human rights of people in immigration detention are of special concern to the Commission because the right to liberty is a fundamental human right recognised in major human rights instruments to which Australia is a party, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The human rights of vulnerable groups – including children, asylum seekers and refugees – are given special protection under international law. The conditions for and treatment of people in immigration detention should comply with Australia’s international human rights obligations. These are contained in a range of international treaties the Australian Government has voluntarily become a party of. Under the Migration Act 1958, it is mandatory for any non-citizen in Australia without a valid visa to be detained, whether they arrive on the mainland or on an ‘excised offshore place’. These people – called ‘unlawful non-citizens’ under the Migration Act – may only be released from immigration detention if they are granted a visa or removed from Australia. Any asylum seeker who has arrived in an ‘excised offshore place’ by boat from 13 August 2012 onwards is potentially liable to transfer to a third country for processing of their claim for protection. Some of these asylum seekers have been transferred to Nauru and Manus Island in Papua New Guinea where they are in immigration detention. A large number of people who arrived in Australia from 13 August 2012 onwards remain in immigration detention in Australia. Some have been released on bridging visas. There is a well-established link between prolonged indefinite detention and serious mental health issues. Uncertainty about their future, lack of independence and loss of control over their lives, the monotony of life in detention, concern about family members still living in dangerous situations overseas, the impacts of past torture and trauma and witnessing the negative impacts of detention on other detainees all contribute to the deterioration of mental health and wellbeing. Detainees may experience a range of mental health issues, including depression, anxiety, cognitive problems, difficulties regulating their emotions, consistently behaving in a way that is not characteristic or normal, sleep-wake cycle reversal (suffering insomnia and an inability to sleep at night) and engaging in negative coping strategies such as self-harm. In serious cases, prolonged indefinite detention can lead to suicide. Alternatives to detention for asylum seekers are not only more humane than immigration detention, they have been found to be effective in managing risks to the community and far less costly than detention in closed facilities. Releasing asylum seekers from detention after they have passed initial health, identity and security checks, and allowing them to live in the community while their applications are processed, greatly reduces the human and financial costs of immigration detention while also ensuring that potential risks to the community to be managed effectively.

Herbal Medicine Essay

Anything that exists on the earth has a need for survival. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), herbal medicines refers to health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or to maintain well-being. Different types of herbal medicines are widely applied in Asia, Africa, and Latin America to meet primary health-care needs. Herbal medicines have maintained its popularity in most regions of the developing world. The application is also rapidly spreading in industrialized countries. Worldwide, among all the different traditional medicine systems, Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is currently the most popular, followed by Indian medicine. Herbal medicine refers to using a plant’s seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark, or flowers for medicinal purposes. Herbalism has a long tradition of use outside of conventional medicine. It is also called botanical medicine or phytomedicine. It is becoming more main stream as improvements in analysis and quality control along with advances in clinical research show the value of herbal medicine in the treating and preventing disease. Herbal medicine is used to treat many conditions, such as asthma, eczema, premenstrual syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine, menopausal symptoms, chronic fatigue, irritable bowel syndrome, and cancer, among others. Herbal supplements are best taken under the guidance of a trained health care provider. Recently, the World Health Organization estimated that 80% of people worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some part of their primary health care. In Germany, about 600 – 700 plant based medicines are available and are prescribed by some 70% of German physicians. In the past 20 years in the United States, public dissatisfaction with the cost of prescription medications, combined with an interest in returning to natural or organic remedies, has led to an increase in herbal medicine use. Whenever a culture attempts to assimilate alien ideas, social stresses are bound to occur, especially when such ideas threaten the dominion of major economic and political interests. Mistakes are likely to arise while attempting to implement these ideas. In the case of Chinese herbal knowledge, its use by people unfamiliar with its rules and protocols invariably leads to mishaps; either the herbs or formulas fail to work as expected, or worse, side effects may result whenever herbs are used in contraindicated conditions. In the political and economic realms, government regulators unfamiliar with the unique characteristics of traditional Chinese medicine may impose restrictions upon Chinese herbal practice that inhibit its effective application and suffocate its future development within our culture. The effectiveness of modern herbal practice suggests that we begin our search by understanding the complete meaning of herbalism. Herbs are grown and collected from all over the world. There is nothing magical about an herb; effective medicinal herbs can be found everywhere that plants grow. There is indeed a necessity in making life better by introducing natural herbal dietary supplements in the country. Within the past decade, herbal medicine has gained increasing importance, with both medical and economic implications. In developing countries particularly, as much as 80percent of the indigenous population still depends on traditional systems of medicine and medicinal plants for healthcare. Some common herbs and their uses are discussed below. * Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) has been used in traditional medicine to treat circulatory disorders and enhance memory. Although not all studies agree, ginkgo may be especially effective in treating dementia (including Alzheimer’s disease) and intermittent claudication (poor circulation in the legs). * Kava kava (Piper methysticum) is said to elevate mood, enhance well-being and contentment, and produce a feeling of relaxation. Several studies have found that kava may be useful in the treatment of anxiety, insomnia, and related nervous disorders. * Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is used by more than 2 million men in the United States for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland. A number of studies suggest that the herb is effective for treating symptoms, including frequent urination, having trouble starting or maintaining urination, and needing to urinate during the night. * Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) is a popular alternative to commonly prescribed medications for sleep problems because it is considered to be both safe and gentle. * Echinacea preparations (from Echinacea purpurea and other Echinacea species) may improve the body’s natural immunity. Echinacea is one of the most commonly used herbal products, but studies are mixed as to whether it can help prevent or treat colds. We chose to have a research study on this topic because I think this can be a way of spreading awareness among people that there can be cheaper way of treating from upset stomachs to headaches. They are also considered natural and therefore healthier and gentler than conventional drugs. So, why is there need to spend so much on expensive drugs uselessly when there is a better option.